ColdWhip

World War I, The Western Front, MarchSeptember 1918

2005-03-19T23:38:00.000-08:00

As the German strength on the Western Front was being steadily increased by the transfer of divisions from the Eastern Front (where they were no longer needed since Russia had withdrawn from the war), the Allies' main problem was how to withstand an imminent German offensive pending the arrival of massive reinforcements from the United States. Eventually Pétain

Merchants Staplers

2005-03-17T04:38:00.000-08:00

Formally Company of the Merchants of the Staple company of English merchants who controlled the export of English wool from the late 13th century through the 16th century. English wool exports were concentrated in one town (called the staple) in order to minimize the problems of collecting the export duties. The location of the staple varied, but in the 14th century it was fixed at Calais, then held by England. The crown

Ricardo (leite), Cassiano

2005-03-15T02:56:00.000-08:00

Ricardo's poetic production covers the period 1915–71. He was a prime mover

Cádiz, Bay Of

2005-03-12T14:29:00.000-08:00

Spanish Bahía De Cádiz, small inlet of the Gulf of Cádiz on the North Atlantic Ocean. It is 7 miles (11 km) long and up to 5 miles (8 km) wide, indenting the coast of Cádiz province, southwestern Spain. It receives the Guadalete River and is partially protected by the narrow Isle of León, on which the major port of Cádiz is located. Other ports along the bay include San Fernando (south), Puerto Real (east), El Puerto

Libya, Drainage

2005-03-10T23:44:00.000-08:00

There are no perennial rivers in Libya. The numerous wadis that drain the uplands are filled by flash floods during the rains and quickly dry up or are reduced to a trickle. The largest wadi systems are the Wadi Zamzam and Wadi Bayy al-Kabir, both of which reach the western coast of the Gulf of Sidra. Other large wadis drain the interior basins of Surt, Zaltan, and the Fezzan.

Paul Vi

2005-03-09T02:41:00.000-08:00

Original name Giovanni Battista Montini Italian pope of the Roman Catholic church (reigned 1963–78) during a period including most of the second Vatican Council (1962–65) and the immediate postconciliar era, in which he issued directives and guidance to a changing Roman Catholic church. His pontificate was confronted with the problems and uncertainties

Nagorno-karabakh

2005-03-07T07:47:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Nagorno-karabach, region of southwestern Azerbaijan. It occupies an area of 1,700 square miles (4,400 square km) on the northeastern flank of the Karabakh Range of the Lesser Caucasus and extends from the crest line of the range to the margin of the Kura River lowland at its foot. Nagorno-Karabakh's environments vary from steppe on the Kura lowland through dense forest of oak, hornbeam, and beech

Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl Of, Baron Of Raby

2005-03-04T10:00:00.000-08:00

Leading adviser of England's King Charles I. His attempt to consolidate the sovereign power of the king led to his impeachment and execution by Parliament.

Tara

2005-03-03T20:49:00.000-08:00

Tibetan Sgrol-ma Buddhist saviour-goddess with numerous forms, widely popular in Nepal, Tibet, and Mongolia. She is the feminine counterpart of the bodhisattva (“Buddha-to-be”) Avalokitesvara. According to popular belief, she came into existence from a tear of Avalokitesvara, which fell to the ground and formed a lake. Out of its waters rose up a lotus, which, on opening, revealed the goddess.

Aeschylus

2005-02-28T08:12:00.000-08:00

This is the third and only surviving play of a connected trilogy, presented in 467 BC, that dealt with the impious transgressions of Laius and the doom subsequently inflicted upon his descendants. The first play seems to have shown how Laius, king of Thebes, had a son despite the prohibition of the oracle of the god Apollo. In the second play it appears that that son, Oedipus,

Kabila, Joseph

2005-02-27T08:36:00.000-08:00

On Jan. 26, 2001, Joseph Kabila was inaugurated as the president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). He was the eldest son of the former president, Laurent Kabila, who had been shot by a bodyguard and apparently killed on January 16, although the death was not announced until two days later. (See Obituaries.) The son—named interim president on January 17 and subsequently chosen

Esref Dynasty

2005-02-24T15:00:00.000-08:00

The dynasty traced its origins to a Turkmen tribe that was settled by the Seljuqs of Anatolia on the western frontier. The family's founder, Esref oglu Sayfeddin Süleyman I, was a Seljuq emir who played an important role in Seljuq dynastic struggles during the reign (1283–98) of the Seljuq sultan Mas'ud

White, William Allen

2005-02-23T13:52:00.000-08:00

American journalist known as the “Sage of Emporia,” whose mixture of tolerance, optimism, liberal Republicanism, and provincialism made him the epitome of the thoughtful small-town American. His editorial writing made his own small-town newspaper, the Emporia Gazette, internationally known, and strongly affected at least one U.S. presidential

Rousseau, Henri

2005-02-20T23:11:00.000-08:00

Byname Le Douanier (French: The Customs Officer) French painter, archetype of the modern naive artist. He expressed himself mainly in richly coloured and meticulously detailed pictures of lush jungles, wild beasts, and exotic figures (e.g., “The Sleeping Gypsy,” 1897, and “The Snake-Charmer,” 1907 [see photograph]). After exhibiting with the Fauves in 1905, he became an object of admiration to avant-garde

Abu Al-'atahiyah

2005-02-18T05:23:00.000-08:00

Abu al-'Atahiyah (“Father of Craziness”) came from a family of mawlas, poor non-Arabs who were clients of the 'Anaza Arab tribe. The family's poverty prevented Abu al-'Atahiyah from receiving

Kerensky, Aleksandr Fyodorovich

2005-02-17T03:28:00.000-08:00

While studying law at the University of St. Petersburg, Kerensky was attracted to the Narodniki (or populist) revolutionary movement. After graduating (1904), he joined the Socialist

Furniture, Other materials

2005-02-15T02:53:00.000-08:00

Among other secondary materials in furniture making, glass has been used in the form of mirrorglass or as a purely decorative, illusionistic element in cabinets and writing desks. Italian craftsmen have made glass furniture; that is, wooden furniture covered with silvered glass in various colours. Ivory and other forms of bone were used as inlay material in Egyptian

Cartier, Sir George étienne, Baronet

2005-02-13T22:37:00.000-08:00

Cartier practiced as a lawyer until 1837, when he took part in the rebellion that sent him into several months of exile in the United States. Elected as a Liberal to the

Bab, The

2005-02-11T22:08:00.000-08:00

At an early age, 'Ali Mohammad became familiar with the Shaykhi school of the Shi'i branch of Islam and with its leader, Sayyid Kazim Rashti, whom he had met on

Biblical Literature, New Testament literature

2005-02-06T11:53:00.000-08:00

The following works are useful for commentary, survey articles, and bibliographic material: George A. Buttrick (ed.), The Interpreter's Bible, especially vol. 1, 7, and 12 (1952–57); Matthew Black (ed.), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, 2nd ed. (1962); and Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy (eds.), The Jerome Biblical Commentary (1968). Werner G. Kuemmel, The New Testament: The History of the Investigations of Its Problems (1972), covers the whole history of New Testament studies with ample excerpts from the major scholars since the 18th century. For a rich introduction to the 27 books of the New Testament with full and balanced reporting on all major issues of contemporary discussion and extensive bibliographies, see Paul Feine, Johannes Behm, and Werner G. Kuemmel, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 14th rev. ed. (1965; Eng. trans., Introduction to the New Testament, 1966). For a general dictionary to the Bible, see George A. Buttrick (ed.), The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vol. (1962). The most extensive tool for the study of New Testament theological terms is Gerhard Kittel (ed.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. 1–8 (1964–72, in progress). For New Testament theologies, see Rudolf Bultmann, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 3rd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., Theology of the New Testament, 2 vol., 1951–55); Hans Conzelmann, Grundriss der Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 2nd ed. (1967; Eng. trans., An Outline of the Theology of the New Testament, 1969). For general commentary, see The International Critical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, 41 vol. (1895–1920); for the major German commentary, see Kritisch exegetischer Kommentar über das Neuen Testament (“Meyer Series,” frequently updated); Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (Lietzmann-Bornkamm); and Das Neue Testament Deutsch (Göttinger Bibelwerk). For a major French Protestant commentary, see Commentaire du Nouveau Testament and for major French and German Roman Catholic commentaries, see Etudes bibliques and Das Neue Testament übersetzt und erklärt (the Regensburger New Testament). (Gospels—texts): Kurt Aland (ed.), Synopsis Quattuor Evangeliorum (1964), a Greek synopsis, includes the Gospel of John and translations (Eng. trans. 1972) of the Coptic Gospel of Thomas. For a synopsis, see Burton H. Throckmorton, Jr. (ed.), Gospel Parallels: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, 3rd ed. (1967). For a general study of the Gospels and the Synoptic problem, see Frederick C. Grant, The Gospels: Their Origin and Their Growth (1957). For arguments against the priority of Mark, see William R. Farmer, The Synoptic Problem (1964). Significant new approaches to gospel study are found in James M. Robinson and Helmut Koester, Trajectories Through Early Christianity (1971). For form criticism, see Rudolf Bultmann, Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, 3rd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., The History of the Synoptic Tradition, 1963). Amos N. Wilder, Early Christian Rhetoric (1971), goes beyond form criticism by fuller attention to modern literary criticism. (Mark): Robert H. Lightfoot, The Gospel Message of St. Mark (1950); and Willi Marxsen, Der Evangelist Markus (1959; Eng. trans., Mark the Evangelist, 1969), are two outstanding works representing different periods and methods of scholarship. (Matthew): For discussion of the arrangement, Old Testament citations, and theology of Matthew, see Guenther Bornkamm, Gerhard Barth, and Heinz J. Held, Auslegung im Mattäus-evangelium (1960; Eng. trans., Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew, 1963). David Hill, New Testament Prophesy (1980), a discussion of prophesy both in the Bible and in the church today. Krister Stendahl, “Prayer and Forgiveness,” in Svensk Exegetisk Ársbok, 22–23:75–86 (1957–58), in English; and The School of St. Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (1968). (Luke): Henry J. Cadbury, The Making of Luke-Acts, 2nd ed. (1958); and Hans Conzelmann, Die Mitte der Zeit: Studien zur Theologie des Lukas, 3rd ed. (1960; Eng. trans., The Theology of St. Luke, 1960), represent a classic treatment of Luke-Acts. (John): Among the most important recent studies on John are Charles H. Dodd, Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel (1963), and The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (1953); Ernst Kaesemann, Jesu letzter Wille nach Johannes 17. (1966; Eng. trans., The Testament of Jesus: A Study of the Gospel of John in the Light of Chapter 17, 1968); and James L. Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel (1968). (Acts): See also Luke above. For Acts viewed in its own time, see Henry J. Cadbury, The Book of Acts in History (1955). Literary style and methods of composition are discussed in Martin Dibelius, Aufsätze zur Apostelgeschichte (1951; Eng. trans., Studies in the Acts of the Apostles, 1956). The scope and purpose of Acts are treated in P.M. Menoud, “Le Plan des Actes des Apôtres,” New Testament Studies, 1:44–50 (1954–55); and W.C. van Unnik, “The ‘Book of Acts' the Confirmation of the Gospel,” Novum Testamentum, 4:26–59 (1960). (Paul): For general works on Paul and the epistles, see Guenther Bornkamm, Early Christian Experience (1970), and Paulus (1969; Eng. trans., 1971); William D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism, 2nd ed. (1955); Martin Dibelius and Werner G. Kuemmel, Paulus (1951; Eng. trans., 1953); Johannes Munck, Paulus und die Heilsgeschichte (1954; Eng. trans., Paul and the Salvation of Mankind, 1959); Arthur D. Nock, St. Paul (1938); and Hans J. Schoeps, Paulus: Die Theologie des Apostels (1959; Eng. trans., Paul: The Theology of the Apostle , 1961). See also Krister Stendahl, “The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West,” Harvard Theological Review, 51: 199–215 (1963). For a survey of Pauline studies, see Edward E. Ellis, Paul and His Recent Interpreters (1961); Wayne A. Meeks (ed.), The Writings of St. Paul (1972); and Ernst Kaesemann, Paulinische Perspektiven (1969; Eng. trans., Perspectives on Paul, 1971). (Romans): John Knox, “A Note on the Text of Romans,” New Testament Studies, 2: 191–192 (1955–56); Krister Stendahl, “Hate, Non-Retaliation, and Love: 1QS x, 17–20 and Romans 12:19–21,” Harvard Theological Review, 50:343–355 (1962). (I Corinthians): For a discussion of the heresies met in I Corinthians, see Walter Schmithals, Die Gnosis in Korinth, 3rd ed. (1969; Eng. trans., Gnosticism in Corinth, 1971). (II Corinthians): For the arrangement of the fragments of II Corinthians and their redaction, see Guenther Bornkamm, “The History of the Origin of the So-Called 2nd Letter to the Corinthians,” New Testament Studies, 8:258–264 (1961–62). For a discussion of Paul's opponents in II Corinthians, see Dieter Georgi, Die Gegner des Paulus im 2. Korintherbrief: Studien zur religiösen Propaganda in der Spätantike (1964); and his shorter article on this subject, “Forms of Religious Propaganda,” in Hans J. Schultz (ed.), Die Zeit Jesu (1966; Eng. trans., Jesus in His Time, 1971). (Galatians): For a discussion of the heretics in Galatia, see Walter Schmithals, “Die Häretiker in Galatien,” Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der Aelteren Kirche (ZNW), pp. 25–67 (1956). (Ephesians): For the meaning and goal of Ephesians, see Edgar J. Goodspeed, The Meaning of Ephesians (1933), and The Key to Ephesians (1956). See also C. Leslie Mitton, The Epistle to the Ephesians (1951). (Philippians): For the place of Philippians in the Pauline collection and the meaning of its various sections, see Helmut Koester, “The Purpose of the Polemic of a Pauline Fragment (Philippians III),” New Testament Studies, 8:317–332 (1961–62). For the concept of Philippians as a testament, see Dieter Georgi, “Ein Testament des Paulus (Phil. 3, 2ff.),” ZNW (1972). (Philemon): John Knox, Philemon Among the Letters of Paul, 2nd ed. (1959). (Pastoral Epistles): For evidence against Pauline authorship, see Percy N. Harrison, The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (1921). See also Eduard Schweizer, Church Order in the New Testament (1961). (Hebrews): Concerning the Christology of Hebrews and the idea of the “wandering people of God,” see Ernst Kaesemann, Das wandernde Gottesvolk, 3rd ed. (1959). An approach to the eschatology of Hebrews and an origin connected with followers of Stephen is found in William Manson, The Epistle to the Hebrews (1951). (Catholic Epistles): For the typical admixture of parenesis, apocalyptic, and the general address of the Catholic Epistles, see Carl Andresen, “Zum Formular frühchristlicher Gemeindebriefe,” ZNW, 56:233–259 (1965). The similarity of style of the Catholic Epistles to later Christian Greek literature is treated in A. Wifstrand, “Stylistic Problems in the Epistles of James and Peter,” Studia Theologica, 11:35–60 (1948). (James): For a solution to the apparent contradiction of Paul and James concerning “works,” see Joachim Jeremias, “Paul and James,” Expository Times, 66:368–371 (1954–55); for clarification of special passages with a modern technique similar to rabbinic methodology, see Roy B. Ward, “The Works of Abraham: James 2:14–26,” Harvard Theological Review, 61:283–290 (1968), and “Partiality in the Assembly: James 2:2–4,” ibid., 62:87–97 (1969). (I Peter): For a date in Trajan's time, see John Knox, “Pliny and I Peter: A Note on I Pet. 4:14–16 and 3:15,” Journal of Biblical Literature, 72:187–189 (1953); an interpretation of the Descent into Hell is found in B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of I Peter iii, 19 and Its Context (1946). (II Peter and Jude): For motivation for the writing of II Peter, see Ernst Kaesemann, “An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology,” in Essays on New Testament Themes (1964). (Johannine Epistles): For speculations as to authorship, date, and nature of the situation of the Johannine Epistles, see W.F. Howard, “The Common Authorship of the Johannine Gospel and Epistles,” Journal of Theological Studies (1947). (Revelation): Concerning liturgical style and content in Revelations, see Guenther Bornkamm, “On the Understanding of Worship; B,” in Early Christian Experience (1969). For a study of Revelation as a creative revelatory poem with unity throughout, drawing upon apocalyptic imagery of its time, see Austin M. Farrer, A Rebirth of Images (1949, reprinted 1963). A general survey of apocalypticism and apocalypses from 200 BC into the early Christian era is found in David S. Russell (op. cit.).

Block Book

2005-02-05T04:32:00.000-08:00

Book printed from wooden blocks on which the text and illustration for each page had to be painstakingly cut by hand. Such books were distinct from printed books after the invention of movable type, in which words were made up of individual letters each of which could be reused as often as necessary and in which only illustrations and special devices,

Scandinavian Literature, Norwegian

2005-02-03T00:52:00.000-08:00

In the 1890s established Norwegian writers came under fire from the new generation. The manifesto of new ideas was an essay published in 1890 in the periodical Samtiden (“The Present Age”) by Knut Hamsun, “Fra det ubevidste Sjaeleliv” (“From the Unconscious Life of the Mind”), which demanded attention to what was individual and idiosyncratic rather than typical. Hamsun was impatient

U-boat

2005-02-01T05:48:00.000-08:00

Germany was the first country to employ submarines in war as substitutes for surface commerce raiders. At the outset of World War I, German U-boats, though numbering only 38, achieved notable successes against British warships; but because of the reactions of neutral powers (especially the United States) Germany hesitated before adopting unrestricted U-boat warfare

Utica

2005-01-29T17:50:00.000-08:00

City, seat (1798) of Oneida county, central New York, U.S., on the Mohawk River and New York State Canal System, 45 miles (72 km) east of Syracuse. The first settlers were Dutch and Palatinate Germans, and in 1758 the British built Old Fort Schuyler, near the site of an ancient Oneida Indian council stone. Destroyed by the Indian-Tory raid in 1776, the early village was rebuilt and connected by stagecoach

Ogre

2005-01-27T20:56:00.000-08:00

Feminine ogress a hideous giant represented in fairy tales and folklore as feeding on human beings. The word gained popularity from its use in the late 17th century by Charles Perrault, the author of Contes de ma mère l'oye (Tales of Mother Goose). Since then, ogres have appeared in many works, including “Tom Thumb”; “Hansel and Gretel,” where the witch is a type of ogre because she intends to eat

Interface

2005-01-26T21:33:00.000-08:00

Surface separating two phases of matter, each of which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. An interface is not a geometric surface but a thin layer that has properties differing from those of the bulk material on either side of the interface. A common interface is that between a body of water and the air, which exhibits such properties as surface tension, by which the interface

Black Humour

2005-01-24T18:40:00.000-08:00

Also called Black Comedy, writing that juxtaposes morbid or ghastly elements with comical ones. Though in 1940 the French Surrealist André Breton published Anthologie de l'humour noir (“Anthology of Black Humour,” frequently enlarged and reprinted), the term did not come into common use until the 1960s. Then it was applied to the works of the novelists Nathanael West, Vladimir Nabokov, and Joseph Heller.

Glycogen Storage Disease

2005-01-21T19:46:00.000-08:00

In the liver group, type O is set apart as

Estonia, Relief and drainage

2005-01-20T19:47:00.000-08:00

The Estonian landscape is largely the product of glacial activity; the south is covered with moraine hills, and the central part abounds in elongated hills with flat tops. The northern part of Estonia is characterized by long narrow swells consisting of deposits left by glacial rivers that formed during the melting of ice. Extensive sandy areas mark what was once

Kiderlen-wächter, Alfred Von

2005-01-18T03:13:00.000-08:00

After service in the Franco-German War (1870–71), Kiderlen studied law and entered the Prussian diplomatic service (1879). He was an exponent of the tough-minded post-Bismarckian German diplomacy and for a time enjoyed

Florence

2005-01-15T16:01:00.000-08:00

Lynches River State Park is located in the county, as is the Florence National Cemetery, which contains the graves of Union soldiers and a small group

Wilson, August

2005-01-14T17:39:00.000-08:00

Largely self-educated, Wilson grew up in poverty and quit school at age 15. He joined the black aesthetic movement in the late 1960s, became the cofounder and director

Wilson, August

2005-01-12T03:06:00.000-08:00

The ancestors of present-day odontocetes probably evolved during the Oligocene Epoch (33.7 million to 23.8 million years ago) from a group of more ancient whales called

Peter Ii

2005-01-10T06:50:00.000-08:00

Duke of Brittany (from 1450), son of John V (or VI) and brother of his predecessor Francis I. He made an important innovation in limiting the right of asylum in churches and monasteries, enabling him to pursue his enemies at will. To preserve the family line, he adhered to the testament of Francis I and made his uncle Arthur, constable de Richemont, his successor, as

Orange-tip Butterfly

2005-01-08T22:49:00.000-08:00

Member of the cosmopolitan insect family Pieridae (order Lepidoptera), which also includes the white and sulfur butterflies and contains more than 1,000 species. Adults have a wingspan of 37 to 63 mm (1.5 to 2.5 inches). The orange-tips (so called because most species have an orange spot on the top of the forewings) have whitish wings with black markings and green

Neolithic Period

2005-01-05T11:31:00.000-08:00

Also called New Stone Age final stage of cultural evolution or technological development among prehistoric humans. It was characterized by stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, dependence on domesticated plants or animals, settlement in permanent villages, and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving. The Neolithic followed the Paleolithic Period, or age of chipped-stone

Resende

2005-01-03T19:54:00.000-08:00

City, western Rio de Janeiro estado (“state”), eastern Brazil, on the Paraíba do Sul River, opposite Agulhas Negras, at 1,296 feet (395 m) above sea level. Dairying, meat and coffee processing, and talc pulverizing are the principal economic activities. A marble quarry is located nearby, as is a military school. Resende, on the Presidente Dutra Highway between the cities of Rio de Janeiro

Elizabeth Stuart

2005-01-01T04:26:00.000-08:00

The daughter of James VI of Scotland (later James I of Great Britain) and Anne of Denmark, Elizabeth in 1606 came to the British royal court, where her beauty and charm attracted much attention and where she soon became a favourite subject of the poets. Gustavus

Barada

2004-12-31T00:06:00.000-08:00

Greek Chrysorrhoas, river of western Syria. It rises in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and flows southward for 52 miles (84 km) through Damascus to intermittent Lake Al-'Utaybah and its marshes. The Barada sets out peacefully on its course only to become within 20 miles a raging torrent, its volume almost doubled by the Fijah Spring (this spring has been tapped to bring drinking water to Damascus). Without

Biblical Literature, Letters

2004-12-28T02:21:00.000-08:00

Among the apocryphal letters are: a 2nd-century Epistula Apostolorum (“Epistle of the Apostles”; actually apocalyptic and antiheretical), the Letter of Barnabas, a lost Letter of Paul to the Alexandrians (said to have been forged by followers of Marcion), the late-2nd-century letter called “III Corinthians” (part of the Acts of Paul and composed largely out of the genuine letters

Earth Sciences, Desalinization, tidal power, and minerals from the sea

2004-12-27T19:10:00.000-08:00

For ages a source of food and common salt, the sea is increasingly becoming a source of water, chemicals, and energy. In 1967 Key West, Fla., became the first U.S. city to be supplied solely by water from the sea, drawing its supplies from a plant that produces more than 2,000,000 gallons of refined water daily. Magnesia was extracted from the Mediterranean in the late 19th century; at present

Claudius Pulcher, Publius

2004-12-24T23:00:00.000-08:00

Son of Appius Claudius Caecus and commander of the fleet that suffered the only serious Roman naval defeat of the First Punic War (264–241 BC). The setback occurred in 249, when Claudius was consul. He attacked the Carthaginian fleet in the harbour of Drepanum (modern Trapani, Sicily) and lost 93 of his 123 vessels. It was popularly believed that Claudius failed because he had committed

Quinisext Council

2004-12-23T10:50:00.000-08:00

The Quinisext Council prepared 102 canons, many of which

Ithna 'ashariyah

2004-12-21T13:09:00.000-08:00

Each of the imams—'Ali, his sons Hasan and Husayn, 'Ali Zayn al-'Abidin, Muhammad al-Baqir, Ja'far as-Sadiq, Musa al-Kazim, 'Ali ar-Rida, Muhammad al-Jawad, 'Ali al-Hadi, Hasan al-'Askari, and Muhammad

Qian Zhongshu

2004-12-18T04:53:00.000-08:00

Qian attended missionary schools in Su-chou and Wu-hsi while receiving English and classical Chinese training under the tutelage of his father, Qian Jibo. A student of the Department of

Nicholson, Ben

2004-12-16T14:32:00.000-08:00

The son of the painter Sir William Nicholson, he was largely self-taught and only briefly attended the Slade School of Fine Art (1910–11), London. He traveled extensively in Europe between 1911 and 1914 and in 1917 visited

Jacobite

2004-12-15T17:03:00.000-08:00

In British history, a supporter of the exiled Stuart king James II (Latin Jacobus) and his descendants after the Revolution of 1688. The political importance of the Jacobite movement extended from 1688 to 1745. The Jacobites, especially under William III and Queen Anne, could offer a feasible alternative title to the crown, and the exiled court in France (and later in Italy) was often

Pigalle, Jean-baptiste

2004-12-12T20:55:00.000-08:00

Born into a family of master carpenters, Pigalle began training as a sculptor at age 18 with Robert Le Lorrain and then studied with Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne. After failing to win the Prix de Rome in 1735, he studied independently in Rome at his own expense from 1736 to 1739. While there Pigalle

Mollien, Gaspard-théodore

2004-12-11T20:05:00.000-08:00

Mollien reached the French colonial station of Saint-Louis, Senegal, in 1817 and in January 1818 began his expedition to discover the sources of the Sénégal, Gambia,

Anti-atlas

2004-12-09T01:02:00.000-08:00

Also called Lesser Atlas, mountain range in Morocco running parallel to and southward of the central range of the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. Although it has a mean elevation of 5,000 feet (1,500 m), some peaks and passes exceed 6,000 feet (1,800 m). This rugged, arid region, which encloses the Sous lowland and reaches the Atlantic coast at Sidi Ifni, is linked to the Haut (High) Atlas by Mount Siroua, a volcanic peak rising

Literature, United States.

2004-12-06T08:44:00.000-08:00

One might wonder, however,

Lima

2004-12-03T21:45:00.000-08:00

City, capital of Peru and of Lima department. It is the country's commercial and industrial centre. Central Lima is located at an elevation of 512 feet (156 metres) on the south bank of the Río Rímac, about eight miles (13 km) inland from the Pacific Ocean port of Callao, and has an area of 27 square miles (70 square km). Its name is a corruption of the Quechua Indian name Rímac, meaning “Talker.” The

Antbird

2004-11-30T09:31:00.000-08:00

Family name Formicariidae, any of numerous birds of the American tropics (order Passeriformes). There are about 230 species in more than 50 genera. Like their near relatives the Furnariidae, antbirds are highly diverse; all are of small to medium size (9.5 to 37 centimetres [4 to 14 inches]), with drab, fluffy plumage (sexes usually unlike); short, rounded wings; variable

Wellfleet

2004-11-28T07:53:00.000-08:00

Town (township), Barnstable county, Massachusetts, U.S. It lies on the northeastern arm of Cape Cod, 12 miles (19 km) south-southeast of Provincetown. First settled about 1724, it was incorporated in 1763 and gained prominence in the 19th century as a fishing port, having from 1830 to 1870 a virtual monopoly of New England oystering. The name of the town may derive from “whale fleet” or from the Wallfleet

Anchieta, José De

2004-11-27T23:22:00.000-08:00

Anchieta came from a prominent Portuguese family and was even thought to be related to the founder of the Jesuit

Manchu-tungus Languages

2004-11-25T06:54:00.000-08:00

Also called Tungusic languages, smallest of three subfamilies of the Altaic language family. The Manchu-Tungus languages are a group of 10 to 17 languages spoken by fewer than 70,000 people scattered across a vast region that stretches from northern China across Mongolia to the northern boundary of Russia. Apart from the moribund Manchu and the now-extinct Juchen (Jurchen) languages, these languages have

Roux, émile

2004-11-22T13:57:00.000-08:00

Roux began his medical studies at the University of Clermont-Ferrand. In 1878 he was accepted into Pasteur's laboratory at the University of Paris and spent 10 years there, completing

Clovio, Giulio

2004-11-21T14:31:00.000-08:00

Clovio is said to have studied at Rome under Giulio Romano and at Verona under Girolamo de' Libri. His book of 26 pictures representing the procession of Corpus Domini, in Rome, was the work of nine years, and the covers were executed by Benvenuto Cellini. The British Museum has

Constantine, Arch Of

2004-11-18T19:02:00.000-08:00

(AD 312), one of three surviving ancient Roman triumphal arches in Rome. Erected hastily to celebrate Constantine's victory over Maxentius, it incorporates sculptures from many earlier buildings, including part of a battle frieze and figures of prisoners from the Forum of Trajan, a series of Hadrianic roundels, and a set of eight Aurelian panels.

A Cappella

2004-11-15T13:22:00.000-08:00

The a cappella style arose about the time of the composer Josquin des Prez, in the late 15th century, and reached preeminence with Palestrina in the late 16th century in the music

Cadogan, William Cadogan, 1st Earl

2004-11-12T06:36:00.000-08:00

The son of a Dublin barrister, Cadogan began his military career in 1690. In 1702 he was made quartermaster general to Marlborough, who had just been appointed commander of the allied armies

Epistemology, Impact of modern science on epistemology

2004-11-11T11:41:00.000-08:00

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), a cleric, argued in On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543) that the Earth revolves around the Sun. His theory was epistemologically shocking for at least two reasons. First, it goes directly counter to how humans experience their relation to the Sun; it is everyone's prescientific view that the Sun revolves around the Earth. If science can

Varthema, Lodovico De

2004-11-08T02:34:00.000-08:00

De Varthema also spelled Di Barthema, Latin Vartomanus, or Vertomannus, intrepid Italian traveler and adventurer whose account of his Middle Eastern and Asiatic wanderings was widely circulated throughout Europe and earned him high fame in his own lifetime. He made significant discoveries (especially in Arabia) and made many valuable observations of the peoples he visited; his ready wit enabled

Interior Design, Special types of interiors

2004-11-06T09:44:00.000-08:00

Michael Saphier, Office Planning and Design (1968), a clear overview of the field of business and office interiors; Betty Alswang and Ambur Hiken, The Personal House (1961), a photographic collection of very personal interiors primarily designed by the artist-occupants, rather than professional interior designers. The photographs and comments contained in the following works make them significant sources for the study and understanding of special interiors: William Wilson Atkin and Joan Adler, Interiors Book of Restaurants (1960); Henry End, Interiors Book of Hotels and Motor Hotels (1963); John F. Pile, Interiors Second Book of Offices (1969); Morris Ketchum, Shops and Stores, rev. ed. (1957); George Nelson (ed.), Living Spaces (1952); Mary Gilliatt and Michael Boys, English Style in Interior Decoration (1967).

Lowestoft

2004-11-04T06:10:00.000-08:00

Town, Waveney district, administrative and historic county of Suffolk, England, that originated as a Danish settlement on Lowestoft Ness, the most easterly point in the United Kingdom. From 1757 until 1802 Lowestoft china, a soft-paste porcelain, was manufactured in the town. The present harbour was built in 1831 by linking Lake Lothing with the sea. After the railway came in 1847, the town

Mora

2004-10-31T00:07:00.000-07:00

County, northern New Mexico, U.S., bordered on the east by the steep walls of the Canadian River Canyon. Though most of the county lies in the Raton section of the Great Plains, its western heights are in the Southern Rocky Mountains. Pecos Baldy, at 12,500 feet (3,810 m), is in the Sangre de Cristo range in the far west; in the southwest is the Santa Fe range, rising to over 11,000 feet (3,350 m). The valley of

Ankara, Battle Of

2004-10-30T02:05:00.000-07:00

While challenging the Christian world in the West, Bayezid had annexed the Anatolian Turkmen principalities and posed as heir to the Seljuqs of Anatolia.

Marrano

2004-10-28T14:11:00.000-07:00

In the late 14th century, Spanish Jewry was threatened with extinction at the hands of mobs of fanatical Christians. Thousands

Vitaceae

2004-10-26T08:52:00.000-07:00

The grape family of flowering plants, in the buckthorn order (Rhamnales), comprising 12 genera of woody plants, most of them tendril-bearing vines. The largest genus, which is pantropic in distribution, is Cissus, containing about 350 species. Vitis, with about 60 to 70 species, is the one genus in the family of great economic importance; it includes the European wine grape (V.

Kireyevsky, Ivan Vasilyevich

2004-10-24T06:07:00.000-07:00

Born into an aristocratic family, Kireyevsky studied metaphysics in Germany in 1830. Upon his return to Russia he founded in 1832 a literary journal called Yevropeyets (“European”), which was banned

Ubiquinone

2004-10-21T14:24:00.000-07:00

Also called Coenzyme Q, any of several members of a series of organic compounds belonging to a class called quinones. Widely distributed in plants, animals, and microorganisms, ubiquinones function in conjunction with enzymes in cellular respiration (i.e., oxidation-reduction processes). The naturally occurring ubiquinones differ from each other only slightly in chemical structure,

Griffith, D W

2004-10-20T06:41:00.000-07:00

D.W. Griffith, the son of Jacob Griffith, a former Confederate colonel, was born in a tiny hamlet not far from Louisville, Ky. He received his early education in one-room schools, largely under the tutelage of his older sister, and was subject to the strong influence of his father's imaginative stories of the Mexican and Civil wars and family readings of the works of Dickens,

Fructidor, Coup Of 18

2004-10-17T13:26:00.000-07:00

The Directory, fearing that it was losing favour in the country, called upon Napoleon Bonaparte to send a general to command troops guarding the legislature at the Tuileries. On 18 Fructidor, year V (September 4, 1799), General Pierre-Fran

Reger, Max

2004-10-15T08:36:00.000-07:00

Reger studied at Weiden. In 1888 he heard Die Meistersinger and Parsifal at Bayreuth, but Wagnerian influence on his music was short-lived. From 1890 to 1893 he studied at Sondershausen

Lista, Alberto

2004-10-13T23:41:00.000-07:00

At age 20, Lista held the chair of mathematics at a college in Sevilla (Seville); later (1807) he assumed the chair of rhetoric and poetry at the University of Sevilla. After spending

X Ray

2004-10-12T07:39:00.000-07:00

Two types of secondary

Kynaston, Edward

2004-10-09T15:57:00.000-07:00

His last female role was in Beaumont and Fletcher's Maid 's Tragedy with Killigrew's Company (1661). Earlier in that year the English diarist Samuel Pepys reports—having seen Kynaston play several parts in Ben Jonson's comedy The Silent Woman, one as a woman gallant in fine clothes—“And

Mesopotamia, History Of, The Hurrians

2004-10-07T19:33:00.000-07:00

The Hurrians enter the orbit of ancient Middle Eastern civilization toward the end of the 3rd millennium BC. They arrived in Mesopotamia from the north or the east, but it is not known how long they had lived in the peripheral regions. There is a brief inscription in Hurrian language from the end of the period of Akkad, while that of King Arishen (or Atalshen) of Urkish and

Einstein, Albert

2004-10-05T05:57:00.000-07:00

German-American physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. In the first 15 years of the 20th century, Einstein—recognized in his own time as one of the most creative intellects in human

Latin American Central Of Workers

2004-10-03T16:05:00.000-07:00

Spanish Central Latinoamericana de Trabajadores (CLAT), regional Christian Democrat trade union federation linked to the World Confederation of Labour (WCL). Its affiliated member groups represent some 10,000,000 workers in more than 35 Latin-American and Caribbean countries and territories. Its headquarters are in Caracas, Venez. From its founding in 1954 until 1971 it was known as the Latin American Federation of Christian Trade

Earth, Nucleosynthetic processes

2004-10-01T00:26:00.000-07:00

The astrophysical concept of nucleosynthesis remains the starting point in tracing planetary evolution. This includes the nuclear processes by which the light elements—hydrogen through boron—were produced at the birth of the universe, some 10,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,000 years ago. By analogy with what astronomers presently observe to happen, it is thought that the solar system represents

Cádiz, Gulf Of

2004-09-29T14:58:00.000-07:00

Spanish and Portuguese Golfo De Cádiz, wide embayment of the Atlantic Ocean along the southwestern Iberian Peninsula, stretching about 200 miles (320 km) from Cape Saint Vincent (Portugal) to Gibraltar. At the Portuguese end—the south-facing area of the Algarve—the coastline consists of bold headlands and high cliffs interrupted by bay beaches, small river mouths, and numerous settlements. Continuing southward

Sankt Veit

2004-09-28T06:10:00.000-07:00

Also called Sankt Veit An Der Glan, town, Kärnten Bundesland (federal state), southern Austria. It lies along the Glan River north of Klagenfurt. Sankt Veit was the capital of the duchy of Kärnten (Carinthia) until 1518. Its town hall dates from 1468 and its old ducal castle from the 15th to 16th century. The Romanesque parish church was altered in the Gothic style in the 14th century. There are several castles in the vicinity,

Price

2004-09-25T09:59:00.000-07:00

City, seat (1894) of Carbon county, central Utah, U.S., on the Price River, 65 miles (105 km) southeast of Provo. Settled in 1877 by Mormons, it was named for the river discovered in 1869 by William Price, a bishop of the Mormon church. Its growth was spurred by the arrival of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad in 1883. Coal production, livestock, and agriculture (sugar beets and grains) are major economic

Chancellor

2004-09-24T06:53:00.000-07:00

In western Europe, the title of holders of numerous offices of varying importance, mainly secretarial, legal, administrative, and ultimately political in nature. The Roman cancellarii, minor legal officials who stood by the cancellus, or bar, separating the tribune from the public, were later employed in the imperial scrinia (writing departments). After the fall of

Plunket, Saint Oliver

2004-09-22T17:51:00.000-07:00

Plunket was educated and ordained in Rome, serving there as professor of theology at the College of Propaganda Fide and as the representative of the Irish bishops at the Holy See. Appointed

Arabia, History Of, The Ayyubids and Rasulids

2004-09-19T04:21:00.000-07:00

The Ayyubids of Egypt, when they invaded Yemen in 1173, found it parceled out among several dynasties. Ayyubid objectives were probably part political, to find themselves a haven and destroy the Isma'ilites, and part economic, to control the India trade route. They remained in power until about 1229, generally controlling Aden, Hadhramaut, the Tihamah, and the districts south of San

Clarence, Thomas Plantagenet, Duke Of

2004-09-17T10:21:00.000-07:00

He twice visited Ireland, where he was nominally lord lieutenant, 1401–13. For a short time, in 1412, he replaced his elder brother, afterward King Henry V, as the chief figure in the government. Clarence favoured an alliance with the Orléanists and led an unsuccessful expedition

Bon Marché

2004-09-15T19:19:00.000-07:00

(French: “Good Buy”), department store in Paris, founded as a small shop in the early 19th century. By about 1865 it had become the world's first true department store. In 1876 the shop was given a new building, with skylighted interior courts, designed by the engineer Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel and architect Louis-Auguste Boileau.

Congé D'élire

2004-09-14T05:13:00.000-07:00

English permission to elect formal message conveying the English sovereign's permission for the dean and chapter of the cathedral of a vacant bishopric to proceed in regular chapter to a new election. Before the Norman Conquest (1066) it was the king's prerogative to appoint bishops to vacant sees. This came to be contested by the popes, though the sovereign usually was able to secure the appointment

Wu Ching

2004-09-12T22:31:00.000-07:00

Pinyin Wu Jing (Chinese: “Five Classics”), five ancient Chinese books whose prestige is so great that in the fourfold classification of Chinese writings the ching (“classics”) are placed before shih (“history”), tzu (“philosophy”), and chi (“literature”). For 2,000 years these classics, all associated in some way with the name of the ancient sage Confucius (551–479 BC), were invoked as norms for Chinese society, law,

Bridgend

2004-09-10T20:11:00.000-07:00

Welsh Pen-y-Bont ar Ogwr county borough, historic county of Glamorgan (Morgannwg), southern Wales. Bridgend county borough extends from the mining valleys of Ogmore, Garw, and Llynfi in the north to the arable lowlands and an extensive coastline in the south. Discoveries of Bronze Age and Iron Age artifacts have been made near the village of Merthyr Mawr, and the remains of many Norman castles

Plume Moth

2004-09-08T06:42:00.000-07:00

Any of the approximately 600 species of the cosmopolitan insect family Pterophoridae (order Lepidoptera), named for the deep wing divisions that resemble plumes or lobes. It differs from the many-plumed moth, an Orneodidae-family member, in that its forewings and hindwings are not split down to their base into six plumes but are divided only to their middle, the forewings

Kerry

2004-09-03T00:39:00.000-07:00

Irish Ciarraí county in the province of Munster, southwestern Ireland. With an area of 1,815 square miles (4,701 square km), it is bounded by Counties Limerick and Cork to the east and by the Atlantic Ocean or its inlets to the south, west, and north. Tralee is the county seat. The principal highlands of Kerry, among which are the highest mountains in Ireland, are of sandstone. Three, and part of a fourth,

Wells, David Ames

2004-09-01T13:30:00.000-07:00

A graduate of Williams College (1847), Wells later studied under Louis Agassiz at the

Bruce, James

2004-08-30T00:04:00.000-07:00

Explorer who, in the course of daring travels in Ethiopia, reached the headstream of the Blue Nile, then thought to be the Nile's main source. The credibility of his observations, published in Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790), was questioned in Britain, partly because he had first told the French court of his discoveries.

Colombian Abyssal Plain

2004-08-29T04:20:00.000-07:00

Submarine plain forming part of the floor of the south-central Caribbean Sea, and the deepest and flattest portion of the Colombian Basin. It rises to the southeast to form the Caribbean coast of Colombia, joins the Clark Basin and Central America's part of the continental shelf to the west, and stretches northward toward the island of Jamaica. The plain is separated

French Literature, Experiments in theatre

2004-08-26T23:44:00.000-07:00

During the 1940s the theatre provided a forum for the veiled expression of political dilemmas through the dramatization of individual crises of conscience. The plays of Montherlant, Jean Anouilh, Giraudoux, and Sartre made this, surprisingly, an outstanding moment for the Parisian stage. A government policy to provide state financial aid after the war led to the encouragement

Kuei River

2004-08-24T16:17:00.000-07:00

Wade-Giles romanization Kuei Chiang , Pinyin Gui Jiang , conventional Kwei Kiang northern tributary of the Hsi River, southern China. The Kuei River rises in the Mao-erh Mountains to the north of Kuei-lin in the northern part of the Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region and flows southward to join the Hsi River at Wu-chou on the border of Kwangsi Chuang and Kwangtung province. The level of the river varies from season to season, and its course has many dangerous

Hargreaves, Alison

2004-08-23T15:24:00.000-07:00

British mountaineer who died in a blizzard while descending from an apparently successful assault on the Himalayan peak K2 only weeks after she had become the first woman to scale Mt. Everest alone and without bottled oxygen (b. Feb. 17, 1962--d. Aug. 13, 1995).

ColdWhip

World War I, The Western Front, MarchSeptember 1918

Merchants Staplers

Ricardo (leite), Cassiano

Cádiz, Bay Of

Libya, Drainage

Paul Vi

Nagorno-karabakh

Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl Of, Baron Of Raby

Tara

Aeschylus

Kabila, Joseph

Esref Dynasty

White, William Allen

Rousseau, Henri

Abu Al-'atahiyah

Kerensky, Aleksandr Fyodorovich

Furniture, Other materials

Cartier, Sir George étienne, Baronet

Bab, The

Biblical Literature, New Testament literature

Block Book

Scandinavian Literature, Norwegian

U-boat

Utica

Ogre

Interface

Black Humour

Glycogen Storage Disease

Estonia, Relief and drainage

Kiderlen-wächter, Alfred Von

Florence

Wilson, August

Wilson, August

Peter Ii

Orange-tip Butterfly

Neolithic Period

Resende

Elizabeth Stuart

Barada

Biblical Literature, Letters

Earth Sciences, Desalinization, tidal power, and minerals from the sea

Claudius Pulcher, Publius

Quinisext Council

Ithna 'ashariyah

Qian Zhongshu

Nicholson, Ben

Jacobite

Pigalle, Jean-baptiste

Mollien, Gaspard-théodore

Anti-atlas

Literature, United States.

Lima

Antbird

Wellfleet

Anchieta, José De

Manchu-tungus Languages

Roux, émile

Clovio, Giulio

Constantine, Arch Of

A Cappella

Cadogan, William Cadogan, 1st Earl

Epistemology, Impact of modern science on epistemology

Varthema, Lodovico De

Interior Design, Special types of interiors

Lowestoft

Mora

Ankara, Battle Of

Marrano

Vitaceae

Kireyevsky, Ivan Vasilyevich

Ubiquinone

Griffith, D W

Fructidor, Coup Of 18

Reger, Max

Lista, Alberto

X Ray

Kynaston, Edward

Mesopotamia, History Of, The Hurrians

Einstein, Albert

World War I, The Western Front, MarchSeptember 1918